[go: up one dir, main page]

WO2013013013A3 - Compositions and methods for producing modified glycoproteins - Google Patents

Compositions and methods for producing modified glycoproteins Download PDF

Info

Publication number
WO2013013013A3
WO2013013013A3 PCT/US2012/047346 US2012047346W WO2013013013A3 WO 2013013013 A3 WO2013013013 A3 WO 2013013013A3 US 2012047346 W US2012047346 W US 2012047346W WO 2013013013 A3 WO2013013013 A3 WO 2013013013A3
Authority
WO
WIPO (PCT)
Prior art keywords
methods
compositions
improved
glycoproteins
producing modified
Prior art date
Application number
PCT/US2012/047346
Other languages
French (fr)
Other versions
WO2013013013A2 (en
Inventor
Anthony Rossomando
John M. Maraganore
Gregory P. Thill
Brian Bettencourt
Original Assignee
Alnylam Pharmaceuticals, Inc.
Priority date (The priority date is an assumption and is not a legal conclusion. Google has not performed a legal analysis and makes no representation as to the accuracy of the date listed.)
Filing date
Publication date
Application filed by Alnylam Pharmaceuticals, Inc. filed Critical Alnylam Pharmaceuticals, Inc.
Publication of WO2013013013A2 publication Critical patent/WO2013013013A2/en
Publication of WO2013013013A3 publication Critical patent/WO2013013013A3/en

Links

Classifications

    • CCHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12YENZYMES
    • C12Y302/00Hydrolases acting on glycosyl compounds, i.e. glycosylases (3.2)
    • C12Y302/01Glycosidases, i.e. enzymes hydrolysing O- and S-glycosyl compounds (3.2.1)
    • C12Y302/01129Endo-alpha-sialidase (3.2.1.129)
    • CCHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C07ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C07KPEPTIDES
    • C07K16/00Immunoglobulins [IGs], e.g. monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies
    • C07K16/18Immunoglobulins [IGs], e.g. monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies against material from animals or humans
    • C07K16/28Immunoglobulins [IGs], e.g. monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies against material from animals or humans against receptors, cell surface antigens or cell surface determinants
    • C07K16/2887Immunoglobulins [IGs], e.g. monoclonal or polyclonal antibodies against material from animals or humans against receptors, cell surface antigens or cell surface determinants against CD20
    • CCHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12NMICROORGANISMS OR ENZYMES; COMPOSITIONS THEREOF; PROPAGATING, PRESERVING, OR MAINTAINING MICROORGANISMS; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING; CULTURE MEDIA
    • C12N15/00Mutation or genetic engineering; DNA or RNA concerning genetic engineering, vectors, e.g. plasmids, or their isolation, preparation or purification; Use of hosts therefor
    • C12N15/09Recombinant DNA-technology
    • C12N15/11DNA or RNA fragments; Modified forms thereof; Non-coding nucleic acids having a biological activity
    • C12N15/113Non-coding nucleic acids modulating the expression of genes, e.g. antisense oligonucleotides; Antisense DNA or RNA; Triplex- forming oligonucleotides; Catalytic nucleic acids, e.g. ribozymes; Nucleic acids used in co-suppression or gene silencing
    • CCHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12NMICROORGANISMS OR ENZYMES; COMPOSITIONS THEREOF; PROPAGATING, PRESERVING, OR MAINTAINING MICROORGANISMS; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING; CULTURE MEDIA
    • C12N15/00Mutation or genetic engineering; DNA or RNA concerning genetic engineering, vectors, e.g. plasmids, or their isolation, preparation or purification; Use of hosts therefor
    • C12N15/09Recombinant DNA-technology
    • C12N15/11DNA or RNA fragments; Modified forms thereof; Non-coding nucleic acids having a biological activity
    • C12N15/113Non-coding nucleic acids modulating the expression of genes, e.g. antisense oligonucleotides; Antisense DNA or RNA; Triplex- forming oligonucleotides; Catalytic nucleic acids, e.g. ribozymes; Nucleic acids used in co-suppression or gene silencing
    • C12N15/1137Non-coding nucleic acids modulating the expression of genes, e.g. antisense oligonucleotides; Antisense DNA or RNA; Triplex- forming oligonucleotides; Catalytic nucleic acids, e.g. ribozymes; Nucleic acids used in co-suppression or gene silencing against enzymes
    • CCHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12NMICROORGANISMS OR ENZYMES; COMPOSITIONS THEREOF; PROPAGATING, PRESERVING, OR MAINTAINING MICROORGANISMS; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING; CULTURE MEDIA
    • C12N9/00Enzymes; Proenzymes; Compositions thereof; Processes for preparing, activating, inhibiting, separating or purifying enzymes
    • C12N9/10Transferases (2.)
    • C12N9/1048Glycosyltransferases (2.4)
    • C12N9/1051Hexosyltransferases (2.4.1)
    • CCHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12NMICROORGANISMS OR ENZYMES; COMPOSITIONS THEREOF; PROPAGATING, PRESERVING, OR MAINTAINING MICROORGANISMS; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING; CULTURE MEDIA
    • C12N9/00Enzymes; Proenzymes; Compositions thereof; Processes for preparing, activating, inhibiting, separating or purifying enzymes
    • C12N9/14Hydrolases (3)
    • C12N9/24Hydrolases (3) acting on glycosyl compounds (3.2)
    • C12N9/2402Hydrolases (3) acting on glycosyl compounds (3.2) hydrolysing O- and S- glycosyl compounds (3.2.1)
    • CCHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12NMICROORGANISMS OR ENZYMES; COMPOSITIONS THEREOF; PROPAGATING, PRESERVING, OR MAINTAINING MICROORGANISMS; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING; CULTURE MEDIA
    • C12N9/00Enzymes; Proenzymes; Compositions thereof; Processes for preparing, activating, inhibiting, separating or purifying enzymes
    • C12N9/88Lyases (4.)
    • CCHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12PFERMENTATION OR ENZYME-USING PROCESSES TO SYNTHESISE A DESIRED CHEMICAL COMPOUND OR COMPOSITION OR TO SEPARATE OPTICAL ISOMERS FROM A RACEMIC MIXTURE
    • C12P21/00Preparation of peptides or proteins
    • C12P21/005Glycopeptides, glycoproteins
    • CCHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12YENZYMES
    • C12Y204/00Glycosyltransferases (2.4)
    • C12Y204/01Hexosyltransferases (2.4.1)
    • C12Y204/01068Glycoprotein 6-alpha-L-fucosyltransferase (2.4.1.68), i.e. FUT8
    • CCHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12YENZYMES
    • C12Y302/00Hydrolases acting on glycosyl compounds, i.e. glycosylases (3.2)
    • C12Y302/01Glycosidases, i.e. enzymes hydrolysing O- and S-glycosyl compounds (3.2.1)
    • C12Y302/01018Exo-alpha-sialidase (3.2.1.18), i.e. trans-sialidase
    • CCHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12YENZYMES
    • C12Y402/00Carbon-oxygen lyases (4.2)
    • C12Y402/01Hydro-lyases (4.2.1)
    • C12Y402/01047GDP-mannose 4,6-dehydratase (4.2.1.47), i.e. GMD
    • CCHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C07ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C07KPEPTIDES
    • C07K2317/00Immunoglobulins specific features
    • C07K2317/20Immunoglobulins specific features characterized by taxonomic origin
    • C07K2317/24Immunoglobulins specific features characterized by taxonomic origin containing regions, domains or residues from different species, e.g. chimeric, humanized or veneered
    • CCHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C07ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C07KPEPTIDES
    • C07K2317/00Immunoglobulins specific features
    • C07K2317/40Immunoglobulins specific features characterized by post-translational modification
    • C07K2317/41Glycosylation, sialylation, or fucosylation
    • CCHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C07ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C07KPEPTIDES
    • C07K2317/00Immunoglobulins specific features
    • C07K2317/70Immunoglobulins specific features characterized by effect upon binding to a cell or to an antigen
    • C07K2317/73Inducing cell death, e.g. apoptosis, necrosis or inhibition of cell proliferation
    • C07K2317/732Antibody-dependent cellular cytotoxicity [ADCC]
    • CCHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C07ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
    • C07KPEPTIDES
    • C07K2317/00Immunoglobulins specific features
    • C07K2317/90Immunoglobulins specific features characterized by (pharmaco)kinetic aspects or by stability of the immunoglobulin
    • CCHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12NMICROORGANISMS OR ENZYMES; COMPOSITIONS THEREOF; PROPAGATING, PRESERVING, OR MAINTAINING MICROORGANISMS; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING; CULTURE MEDIA
    • C12N2310/00Structure or type of the nucleic acid
    • C12N2310/10Type of nucleic acid
    • C12N2310/14Type of nucleic acid interfering nucleic acids [NA]
    • CCHEMISTRY; METALLURGY
    • C12BIOCHEMISTRY; BEER; SPIRITS; WINE; VINEGAR; MICROBIOLOGY; ENZYMOLOGY; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING
    • C12NMICROORGANISMS OR ENZYMES; COMPOSITIONS THEREOF; PROPAGATING, PRESERVING, OR MAINTAINING MICROORGANISMS; MUTATION OR GENETIC ENGINEERING; CULTURE MEDIA
    • C12N2310/00Structure or type of the nucleic acid
    • C12N2310/30Chemical structure
    • C12N2310/35Nature of the modification
    • C12N2310/351Conjugate
    • C12N2310/3515Lipophilic moiety, e.g. cholesterol

Landscapes

  • Chemical & Material Sciences (AREA)
  • Health & Medical Sciences (AREA)
  • Life Sciences & Earth Sciences (AREA)
  • Organic Chemistry (AREA)
  • Genetics & Genomics (AREA)
  • Engineering & Computer Science (AREA)
  • Zoology (AREA)
  • Wood Science & Technology (AREA)
  • Bioinformatics & Cheminformatics (AREA)
  • General Engineering & Computer Science (AREA)
  • Biochemistry (AREA)
  • General Health & Medical Sciences (AREA)
  • Molecular Biology (AREA)
  • Biomedical Technology (AREA)
  • Biotechnology (AREA)
  • Microbiology (AREA)
  • Medicinal Chemistry (AREA)
  • Biophysics (AREA)
  • Plant Pathology (AREA)
  • Physics & Mathematics (AREA)
  • Immunology (AREA)
  • Proteomics, Peptides & Aminoacids (AREA)
  • Virology (AREA)
  • Chemical Kinetics & Catalysis (AREA)
  • General Chemical & Material Sciences (AREA)
  • Preparation Of Compounds By Using Micro-Organisms (AREA)
  • Peptides Or Proteins (AREA)
  • Medicines That Contain Protein Lipid Enzymes And Other Medicines (AREA)

Abstract

The invention generally relates to compositions and methods for producing glycoproteins that have alter glycan structure and improved properties. Tbe glycoproteins are produced by modifying the glycosylation pathways in a host cell using an RNA effector molecule, such as an siRNA. Glycan-modified proteins produced using tbe methods described herein have improved properties, such as improved effector activity, improved pharmacokinetic properties, reduced immunogenicity in humans and the like.
PCT/US2012/047346 2011-07-21 2012-07-19 Compositions and methods for producing modified glycoproteins WO2013013013A2 (en)

Applications Claiming Priority (4)

Application Number Priority Date Filing Date Title
US201161510437P 2011-07-21 2011-07-21
US61/510,437 2011-07-21
US201261617322P 2012-03-29 2012-03-29
US61/617,322 2012-03-29

Publications (2)

Publication Number Publication Date
WO2013013013A2 WO2013013013A2 (en) 2013-01-24
WO2013013013A3 true WO2013013013A3 (en) 2014-05-08

Family

ID=47558720

Family Applications (1)

Application Number Title Priority Date Filing Date
PCT/US2012/047346 WO2013013013A2 (en) 2011-07-21 2012-07-19 Compositions and methods for producing modified glycoproteins

Country Status (1)

Country Link
WO (1) WO2013013013A2 (en)

Cited By (2)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
CN108138186A (en) * 2016-08-31 2018-06-08 北京天广实生物技术股份有限公司 Anti-CD 20 antibodies
US10975168B2 (en) 2015-11-02 2021-04-13 Genentech, Inc. Methods of making fucosylated and afucosylated forms of a protein

Families Citing this family (28)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
US8911964B2 (en) 2006-09-13 2014-12-16 Abbvie Inc. Fed-batch method of making human anti-TNF-alpha antibody
CN101663390B (en) 2006-09-13 2013-10-23 Abbvie公司 Fed-batch cell culture method using hydrolyzate of non-animal origin
BRPI0920027A2 (en) 2008-10-20 2015-10-06 Abbott Lab isolation and purification of antibodies using protein affinity chromatography
CA2738499A1 (en) 2008-10-20 2010-04-29 Abbott Laboratories Viral inactivation during purification of antibodies
US9062106B2 (en) 2011-04-27 2015-06-23 Abbvie Inc. Methods for controlling the galactosylation profile of recombinantly-expressed proteins
US9067990B2 (en) 2013-03-14 2015-06-30 Abbvie, Inc. Protein purification using displacement chromatography
WO2013158279A1 (en) 2012-04-20 2013-10-24 Abbvie Inc. Protein purification methods to reduce acidic species
US9181572B2 (en) 2012-04-20 2015-11-10 Abbvie, Inc. Methods to modulate lysine variant distribution
US9249182B2 (en) 2012-05-24 2016-02-02 Abbvie, Inc. Purification of antibodies using hydrophobic interaction chromatography
BR112015004467A2 (en) 2012-09-02 2017-03-21 Abbvie Inc method for controlling protein heterogeneity
US9512214B2 (en) 2012-09-02 2016-12-06 Abbvie, Inc. Methods to control protein heterogeneity
EP2830651A4 (en) 2013-03-12 2015-09-02 Abbvie Inc Human antibodies that bind human tnf-alpha and methods of preparing the same
WO2014151878A2 (en) 2013-03-14 2014-09-25 Abbvie Inc. Methods for modulating protein glycosylation profiles of recombinant protein therapeutics using monosaccharides and oligosacharides
US9017687B1 (en) 2013-10-18 2015-04-28 Abbvie, Inc. Low acidic species compositions and methods for producing and using the same using displacement chromatography
WO2014159579A1 (en) 2013-03-14 2014-10-02 Abbvie Inc. MUTATED ANTI-TNFα ANTIBODIES AND METHODS OF THEIR USE
WO2015051293A2 (en) 2013-10-04 2015-04-09 Abbvie, Inc. Use of metal ions for modulation of protein glycosylation profiles of recombinant proteins
US9085618B2 (en) 2013-10-18 2015-07-21 Abbvie, Inc. Low acidic species compositions and methods for producing and using the same
US8946395B1 (en) 2013-10-18 2015-02-03 Abbvie Inc. Purification of proteins using hydrophobic interaction chromatography
US9181337B2 (en) 2013-10-18 2015-11-10 Abbvie, Inc. Modulated lysine variant species compositions and methods for producing and using the same
WO2015073884A2 (en) 2013-11-15 2015-05-21 Abbvie, Inc. Glycoengineered binding protein compositions
MA40871A (en) 2014-10-29 2017-09-05 Novartis Ag DIRECT EXPRESSION OF ANTIBODIES
ES2712303T3 (en) 2014-11-15 2019-05-10 Zumutor Biologics Inc DNA binding domain of the CRISPR system for the production of non-fucosylated and partially fucosylated proteins
WO2016091268A2 (en) * 2014-12-12 2016-06-16 University Of Copenhagen N-glycosylation
EP4628094A2 (en) 2016-06-06 2025-10-08 City of Hope Baff-r antibodies and uses thereof
EA202092286A1 (en) 2018-03-26 2021-03-18 Эмджен Инк. GENERAL AFUCOSYLATED ANTIBODY GLYCOFORM OBTAINED IN CELL CULTURE
CN114127083B (en) 2019-05-13 2024-11-15 Dna2.0股份有限公司 Modification of mammalian cells using artificial microRNAs to alter their properties and the composition of their products
EP4149435A1 (en) * 2020-05-14 2023-03-22 Modernatx, Inc. Lnp compositions comprising an mrna therapeutic and an effector molecule
US20230313187A1 (en) * 2020-09-04 2023-10-05 Dna Twopointo Inc. Modifications of mammalian cells using artificial micro-rna to alter their properties and the compositions of their products

Citations (3)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
US20100304436A1 (en) * 2009-06-02 2010-12-02 Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Fucosylation-Deficient Cells
US20110053223A1 (en) * 2009-08-14 2011-03-03 Robert Bayer Cell culture methods to make antibodies with enhanced adcc function
US20110086050A1 (en) * 2001-10-25 2011-04-14 Presta Leonard G Glycoprotein compositions

Patent Citations (3)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
US20110086050A1 (en) * 2001-10-25 2011-04-14 Presta Leonard G Glycoprotein compositions
US20100304436A1 (en) * 2009-06-02 2010-12-02 Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Inc. Fucosylation-Deficient Cells
US20110053223A1 (en) * 2009-08-14 2011-03-03 Robert Bayer Cell culture methods to make antibodies with enhanced adcc function

Non-Patent Citations (1)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Title
SZABO ET AL.: "Rapid high resolution characterization of functionally important monoclonal antibody n-glycans by capillary electrophoresis.", ANAL CHEM., vol. 83, no. 13, 1 July 2011 (2011-07-01), pages 5329 - 5336 *

Cited By (6)

* Cited by examiner, † Cited by third party
Publication number Priority date Publication date Assignee Title
US10975168B2 (en) 2015-11-02 2021-04-13 Genentech, Inc. Methods of making fucosylated and afucosylated forms of a protein
US11802165B2 (en) 2015-11-02 2023-10-31 Genentech, Inc. Methods of making fucosylated and afucosylated forms of a protein
US12391769B2 (en) 2015-11-02 2025-08-19 Genentech, Inc. Methods of making fucosylated and afucosylated forms of a protein
CN108138186A (en) * 2016-08-31 2018-06-08 北京天广实生物技术股份有限公司 Anti-CD 20 antibodies
US11208492B2 (en) 2016-08-31 2021-12-28 Beijing Mabworks Biotech Co. Ltd. Anti-CD20 antibody
US11970541B2 (en) 2016-08-31 2024-04-30 Beijing Mabworks Biotech Co. Ltd. Anti-CD20 antibody

Also Published As

Publication number Publication date
WO2013013013A2 (en) 2013-01-24

Similar Documents

Publication Publication Date Title
WO2013013013A3 (en) Compositions and methods for producing modified glycoproteins
WO2013013017A3 (en) Compositions and methods for modifying the glycosylation of lysosomal storage disorder therapeutics
WO2013076259A3 (en) Polypeptides having lysozyme activity and polynucleotides encoding same
WO2012103300A3 (en) Polypeptides having cellobiohydrolase activity and polynucleotides encoding same
HK1215053A1 (en) Methods and materials for biosynthesis of mogroside compounds
MY160680A (en) Process for producing molecules containing specialized glycan structures
WO2013019827A3 (en) Polypeptides having xylanase activity and polynucleotides encoding same
BR112013025862A2 (en) lignin compositions, methods of producing the compositions, methods of using lignin compositions and products thereby produced
EP3543333A3 (en) Method for screening alpha-amylases
EP2735611A3 (en) Polypeptides having cellulolytic enhancing activity and polynucleotides encoding same
WO2012044915A3 (en) Beta-glucosidase variants and polynucleotides encoding same
WO2012175751A3 (en) Fc variants with reduced effector functions
WO2011035027A3 (en) Polypeptides having cellulolytic enhancing activity and polynucleotides encoding same
WO2011005867A8 (en) Polypeptides having cellulolytic enhancing activity and polynucleotides encoding same
WO2009088572A3 (en) Method of treating erythropoietin hyporesponsive anemias
FR2941231B1 (en) NOVEL PEPTIDES, COMPOSITIONS COMPRISING THEM AND COSMETIC AND DERMO-PHARMACEUTICAL USES
WO2012042386A3 (en) Mannosidases capable of uncapping mannose-1-phospho-6-mannose linkages and demannosylating phosphorylated n-glycans and methods of facilitating mammalian cellular uptake of glycoproteins
WO2013057141A3 (en) Alpha-amylase variants and polynucleotides encoding same
WO2011100477A3 (en) Antibodies and processes for preparing the same
EP4253534A3 (en) Alpha-amylase variants and polynucleotides encoding same
WO2013096603A3 (en) Cellobiohydrolase variants and polynucleotides encoding same
WO2013019780A3 (en) Polypeptides having endoglucanase activity and polynucleotides encoding same
WO2014152137A8 (en) Oligosaccharide compositions, glycoproteins and methods to produce the same in prokaryotes
WO2013074956A3 (en) Polypeptides having beta-glucosidase activity, beta-xylosidase activity, or beta-glucosidase and beta-xylosidase activity and polynucleotides encoding same
WO2010088463A3 (en) Polypeptides having expansin activity and polynucleotides encoding same

Legal Events

Date Code Title Description
121 Ep: the epo has been informed by wipo that ep was designated in this application

Ref document number: 12815154

Country of ref document: EP

Kind code of ref document: A2

122 Ep: pct application non-entry in european phase

Ref document number: 12815154

Country of ref document: EP

Kind code of ref document: A2